The project established 21 common perceived effective leadership attributes and behaviors within the 57 participating nations, providing evidence of widespread assumptions about leadership. (2004). London: Falmer. Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. We must be aware that the spread of good practice internationally through the educational management literature, through the actions of international organisations such as UNESCO, and through the impact of professional development programmes, all of which are dominated by the perspectives of western educational management practitioners and academics, is in danger of presenting such a global picture of good practice. (2003). They suggest the spiritual values embedded in the teaching of Vivekananda, Tagore and Ghandi would provide a more culturally appropriate basis for the leadership of education than the currently Western values which relate in part to the colonial history of the nation. Leader development across cultures. Bhindi In Cultural processes, the second element of a systems perspective, will be reflected in almost every dimension of the operation of the school. Sarason, S. Identity based and reputational leadership: an American Indian approach to leadership. Accessed online 16.2.07. Hofstede, G. Gender and race in leadership preparation: a constrained discourse. & Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. While there is extensive research on the implications of assessment modes on school learners, including the relationship of assessment to variables such as gender and ethnicity, no similar body of research informs how we understand the assessment of leaders. Discernment of the publicly espoused culture, the culture implicit in practice and the desired culture will inevitably comprise a kaleidoscope of differing opinions and wishes reflecting the perspectives of the individuals responsible for the design and delivery of development. Hallinger Consequently mid-forged manacles of Western generated categories hinder the development of leaders in Malaysia where Islam is deeply embedded in culture. (2002). M. As we shall demonstrate later in the chapter, it is getting to understand these values and beliefs that is a critical first step for educational leaders in developing the skills to manage, develop and evolve culture in their school. One of the best known divisions was by Stoll and Fink (2000), which distinguishes mobile, . 330). School leaders work within pressing cultures which sustain themselves by multiple conscious and unconscious mechanisms (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). International Studies in Educational Administration. (1995). Cultural diversity and group work effectiveness. Culture also impacts on delivery. In this line, a study . Fink, D. Ribbins, P. Nevertheless, school leadership that supports, stimulates, and facilitates teacher learning, has been found to be a key condition for collaborative teacher learning (Stoll & Kools, 2017). A primary aim of the chapter therefore is to explore how we understand culture in its infinitely variable expressions, and how it relates to the design and implementation of leadership preparation and development programs. It would appear that teachers have one view, government another, and various segments of the community still another. It has 525 students in grades 9-12 with a student-teacher ratio of 13 to 1. London: Sage. This unique culture will reveal itself through a number of institutional characteristics: While these representations are identifiable and mostly tangible, the illusiveness of the concept of culture lies in the fact that it is an holistic concept which is more than the sum of these component parts. Although researchers are just beginning to document the effectiveness of the PLC culture, early indications show that it has a significant positive effect on student learning (Lee & Smith, 1996; Louis & Marks, 1998; Stoll et al., 2006; Wiley, 2001). While these are different aims, they both involve intercultural fluency. Louque, A. Watch Events 3 Live Search by typing your school, event, association. (2004). As in the acquisition of any language, fluency can only be achieved by practice and not just by theory (Taras & Rowney, 2007). 17). (2001). Culture can then be viewed in shorthand as: Hodgkinson, C. We must be aware that the spread of good practice internationally through the educational management literature, through the actions of international organisations such as UNESCO, and through the impact of professional development programmes, all of which are dominated by the perspectives of western educational management practitioners and academics, is in danger of presenting such a global picture of good practice. P. W. Gupta A major international study, The Global Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness (GLOBE) project, aimed to establish which leadership behavior was universally viewed as contributing to leadership effectiveness (House, Paul, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman & Mansour 2004, p. 3). (1991). Such reculturing (Fullan, 2001) is perhaps the biggest challenge to school leaders, though, for it will certainly generate conflict, contradiction and destabilization as part of the process as DiPaola (2003, p. 153) has indicated: Javidan Bottery, M. Powell, Farrar and Cohen (1985) used research from fifteen high schools to depict a culture of easy and uncritical acceptance of underachievement. The political perspective would see educational leaders as seeking to generate in their pupils and staff a critical view of society, to challenge existing orthodoxies and to become citizens able to participate in social and cultural change. Spicing it op: Blending perspectives of leadership and cultural values from Hispanic American and African American women scholars. Archer, M. Cultures consequences: management in Saudi Arabia. M. Preparation and development programs therefore face a twofold challenge: In the next section we shall examine the issues of culture and leadership preparation and development. , & In a strict sense we might argue that the culture of every educational institution is unique, derived from the context in which the school operates and the values of those who have led or been part of the organization over time. Organizational development in the Arab world. London: Sage. As a consequence, leaders must be equipped to work with both imported as well as indigenous culture. & Similarly, Louque (2002) challenges the appropriateness of the culture embedded in the selection and development of educational leaders to Hispanic and African American Women. The first approach led to selection of 25 most frequently found publications on the school as learning organisation and/or learning school. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 367381. However, such a perspective ignores the ability of schools to select many of the cultural inputs. In School culture, therefore, is most clearly "seen" in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus. Whittier Christian High School is a highly rated, private, Christian school located in LA HABRA, CA. The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. In How principals manage ethnocultural diversity: Learnings from three countries. Discourse and Organization. Stoll & Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change . ), Effective educational leadership (pp. School culture and culture in general are often labeled as self-evident. Mapping the conceptual terrain of leadership: a critical point for departure for cross-cultural studies. In. (1997).Organizational behaviour (3rd ed.). Mills, M. Educational Leadership: Ambiguity, Professionals and Managerialism. M. D. Within this, however, there may exist several cultures: Stoll and Fink (1996)25 pupil culture, teacher cultures, a leadership culture, non-teaching staff culture, and parent culture. (Eds. Stoll, & Mackay, 2014). (2007). The values they espouse or eschew, the aspirations and achievements they have, and their contribution to communities (local, regional, national), whether positive or negative are the cultural product of the school. (2003). , Just as there is an interplay between culture and modes of delivery, assessment may also be rendered more or less effective by the degree of cultural fit. However, these may be taken-for-granted, and only apparent to those designing and delivering development when a lack of fit is pointed out by specific groups. | Free trial Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. Washington Middle School 716 E. La Habra Boulevard La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2374. International Studies in Educational Administration, Thomas, D. C. Published 1996. (2005). Where there is any element of selectivity of pupils, whether by ability/prior achievement or by geography or by capacity to pay, then the school will be involved in processes of cultural selection. P.J. While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. Wallace, M. Bennett International Studies in Educational Administration, 32(2), 417. Images of Organization, Powell, A. G. Shah, S. The first is that leaders are passive ambassadors of culture. , Preparing leaders involves considering the nature and impact of culture on the crafting of their development (for example, the curriculum or mode of delivery). The paper reviews the literature on 'what works' in school improvement taken from a number of sourcesfrom effective schools studies, from accounts by headteachers who have turned schools around. These can have negative or positive dimensions the media report of the schools excellent examination results will convey a different message about the schools culture than a local reputation for rowdy behavior by the schools pupils during lunchtime breaks. Sports. (1996). Journal of Educational Administration, 334(5), 1231. (forthcoming) distinguish transmission models, where experts pass on theoretical knowledge (often indiscriminately, as discussed earlier), and process models which use more community based styles of learning. Jackson, D. . (2001). Fernandez Prasad, P. K. & (See, for example, Buruma and Margal-its book, Occidentalism: The west in the eyes of its enemies.) In terms of cultural inputs it is important that leaders within a school have the skills and knowledge to read the cultural landscape of the school, to recognize those aspects of it which can be controlled or manipulated, and decide which should be influenced and in what ways. Culture can take different forms. The second has a similar perspective but rather than losing the identities of existing cultures in the melting pot sees the retention of plural cultures within education which can enrich and reinforce each other what is sometimes described as the salad bowl approach to cultural change. Chinese culture and leadership. (1997). Culture is the set of beliefs, values and behaviors, both explicit and implicit, which underpin an organization and provide the basis of action and decision making, and is neatly summarized as the way we do things around here. What we mean by the term culture is both argued to be generally understood (Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming) and suggested not to be understood, misunderstood or so variously understood as to be verging on meaningless. Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective. The Place of Culture in Social Theory. Bajunid (1996, p. 52) argued over a decade ago that in Malaysia there is an urgent need to inspire, motivate and work with relevant and meaningful concepts that the locals are at home and familiar with and to free educational leadership and management from the intellectual domination of Greco-Roman, Christian, Western intellectual traditions (1996, p. 63). ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. (2001). Any research which attempts to map such differences in concept and practice will face severe methodological challenges. This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. School culture refers to a total of shared values expressed through norms, rituals, expectations, behaviour and everyday practices. Heck, R. For example, 86% of the worldwide variance on individualism-collectivism and 70% of variance across power-distance are found in Europe (Sparrow & Hiltrop, 1998, p. 73). Rejection of the cultural assumptions in preparation and development programs abound on the grounds of gender (Brunner, 2002; Coleman, 2005; Louque, 2002; Rusch, 2004), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998; Tippeconic, 2006), national culture (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; Hallinger, Walker. 8-9; Stoll and Fink 1995). Beyond the school, though, lies a range of contextual cultures extending from the community within which the school lies to regional, national and international cultural contexts. (2002). Ranade, M. We have looked at three theoretical aspects of culture here. Such a knowledge base would allow theory to be developed in a more culturally aware way. The recent emphasis has been on achieving standards through managing schools, teachers and the teaching process. (1999). Leaders interact with culture at the organizational level both in terms of efforts to include the multiple cultures which may be present and also to sustain, adapt or change the dominant culture. , & , School culture, therefore, is most clearly seen in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems, and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus (Stoll & Fink, 1998) or simply the distinctive identity of . Collard (2006), for example, contends that much of the global level educational development through programs of agencies such as UNESCO and the World Bank is based on an import model which he portrays as a tidal wave of western values, sweeping away existing cultural environments. (2001). However, Cardno (2007) argues that the dilemma created by the need to give negative feedback and to save face, for example in appraisal, often emphasized as a cultural context in Chinese societies, is in fact universal. Educational Management & Administration, Bush, T. we elaborated a typology of school improvement trajectories: we identi ed 4 di erent trajectories of school improvement. In this set article, Professor Louise Stoll explores the relationship between school culture and school improvement. Prosser, J. More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. Hargreaves (1995) developed a different typological model in which he distinguishes formal, welfarist, hothouse, and survivalist school cultures based on the educational priorities of the school in the context of external market environments. & From the approach adopted for teaching and learning, to the cultural values espoused in the pastoral and ethical functions of the school, to the relative value ascribed to possible destinations for pupils beyond school, the fabric of school life will be imbued by these cultural processes. ), Educational management: Redefining theory, policy and practice (pp. Salaman The third element of the system is the cultural output of the school. He also insisted that the complex creation of culture was the result of multiple inputs from staff, learners and the wider community. Leader and leadership development may therefore be as effectively focused on teacher leaders as on principals in these two countries. Very many illustrations could be offered of the different expectations and practice of leadership throughout the world. An international perspective on leadership preparation. It involves consideration of fit to the culture of each individual school but also the necessity to equip leaders to engage with their own organizations culture, to sustain, develop or challenge it. Conference of the Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration and Management, Collard, J. Leading educational change in East Asian schools. International Studies in Educational Administration. & Leithwood, K. At the interface with exogenous and endogenous cultures, preparation and development reflect choices which are more than technical. Lack of uniformity of culture is therefore an issue even among small, apparently homogeneous groups Distinguishing rhetoric from practice is a second challenge. Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. Sarason, S. R. Mabey Walker, J. & 331360). Develops two "ideal culture" typologies (traditional and collegial) and discusses each for its heuristic, conceptual, methodological, and explanatory potential in school effectiveness and school . The study identifies how cultural literacy amongst the principals of the schools is a key element of the positive achievements they report. C+. Kaur Hayers, P. London: Sage. We are using cookies to provide statistics that help us give you the best experience of our site. In the period since the 1970s many commentators have created sometimes a single description of school culture, and sometimes typologies providing alternate descriptions. Organisational Culture and Leadership. Their typology distinguishes club, role, task and person cultures in organizations, and enables a simple analysis of the dominant cultural themes within a school or a team. The identification of the relevant culture and the group to which it is appropriate is predicated on the notion that humans can be classified, that a specific culture can be assigned to those in a particular geographic area or sharing a particular characteristic such as gender, language, ethnic background or religion. An example of the cultural challenges that emerge from this has been described by Hallinger and Kantamara (2001) in the context of Thailand. Adler, N. UCEA. In contrast the assessment of educational leaders often assumes that consideration of cultural fit is unnecessary in relation to standards which are uncritically accepted as international. Revisiting the Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. with Iles, P. Walker, A. We will explore the concept of school culture from the perspective of teacher subcultures and the categories devised by Dalin and Stoll & Fink We will relate issues on school culture to your placement school We will develop an appreciation for how important school culture is in the process of curriculum change Teacher subculture can be based on: (1998). Walker, A. In previous papers we have described the evolution of this project in detail (Stoll and Fink, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, Fink and Stoll, 1992). Finally, we identify key issues and areas for future research. (forthcoming) point up the greater sensitivity within some cultures where responsibility for success is group owned and/ or where maintaining face is a high priority. In others, variation is considerable and the primary drive to develop teaching and learning, attainment and achievement may be located elsewhere. It is also a response to the greater sensitivity brought about by the increasing diversity within many societies and the insistence that a perspective based on a single dominant culture risks sustaining a hegemonic, ineffective and excluding approach. Multiple perspectives on values and ethical leadership. Dorfman, P. W. Good schools of this were 1965 the context of change a story of change - the Halton effective school project school effectiveness can inform school improvement the possibilities and challenges of school improvement school . Inevitably therefore, design of the curriculum and its delivery will involve judgments not only about the relevant local culture and the degree of diversity, but also how far global or international cultural assumptions may be relevant. The result is that most preparation and development takes egalitarian participation and transformational leadership as key (Bush & Jackson, 2002). There is relatively little attention paid to middle leaders such as department heads and teacher leaders (Bush & Jackson, 2002). For example, being dynamic and dependable, encouraging and displaying integrity were agreed to be positive leader attributes across all the nations involved. (Hoppe, 2004, p. 333). In He suggests that schools are bastions of conservatism, not centers of social experimentation. Prasad According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. While there may be commonalities within a whole school, in practice each of these levels will differ in the detail of its culture. Consequently, a tendency to stereotype or discount alternative cultures must be halted by conscious, persistent effort (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). Despite the recognition that culture is an elusive and diverse concept, identifying some of the existing intellectual paradigms of culture is an important starting point. For example, North American and European development assert a cultural commitment to inclusion and equality for all. Cultural complexity offers only multiple complications in assessing fit, not safe generalized conclusions. By continuing to use the site School Effectiveness and School Improvement, v6 n1 p23-46 1995 Explores the relevance of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement. Washington, K. Lakomski, G. A number of research areas seem indicated as urgently required. (Eds. Hwang, K. K. Paper presented to the In China the relatively low contact hours enjoyed by teachers combined with a culture of comfort with peer critique has resulted in teacher groups working together for a considerable proportion of their time to achieve change (Bush & Qiang, 2000), while principals spend much of their time on operational administration (Washington, 1991). Teacher cultures have received most . A challenge to dominant cultures and the evolution of cultures which are seen as fitting will be achieved only by persistent efforts to increase the intercultural fluency of all involved, in part by increasing the evidence base, and in part through detailed translation of such evidence to impact the design and delivery of the development of leaders. Buckingham: Open University Press. Unproductive, toxic schools have fragmented staffs, eroding goals, and negative, hopeless atmospheres. Two typologies are developed. & Duignan, P. (forthcoming) provide a strong warning that collective cultures as well as honoring hierarchical superiority may also have an acute need to maintain self-esteem. A second early example from the US of a description of a cultural type was the shopping mall school. (Eds. The extent of this range of sub-cultures and counter-cultures and their positive or negative interactions will be a key issue for those in leadership within the school and may cause cultural management issues to be significant or insignificant within the whole management task. We present here a small number of examples in order to illustrate a range of typologies. Farrar, E. Mills Goddard, T. 5167). Each of the cultures influences and is influenced by each of the others. It is characterized by very limited research at the within school subunit scale, and by the adoption of generalized models of culture from business and management disciplines at whole-school or national/international scales of analysis. (1997). ), Leading Schools in a Global Era: A Cultural Perspective, Peabody Journal of Education, Litvin, D. R. Bell Pupils, staff and school leaders have an on-going engagement with external stakeholders, from parents, to neighbors, to employers, to the media, and every one of those interactions conveys a message about the culture of the school and its underpinning values.
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